Python 3 6 7

There are now newer bugfix releases of Python 3.7 that supersede 3.7.6 and Python 3.8 is now the latest feature release of Python 3. Get the latest releases of 3.7.x and 3.8.x here. We plan to continue to provide bugfix releases for 3.7.x until mid 2020 and security fixes until mid 2023. Among the major new features in Python 3.7 are. Python 2.6.7 - June 3, 2011. No files for this release. Python 2.5.6 - May 26, 2011. No files for this release. Python 3.2.0 - Feb. Download Mac OS X 32-bit.

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4. Python 3 6 8

Python is arguably one of the best first programming languages widely used for developing web apps. It is still one of the largest and well-organized open-source projects going and it runs everywhere, from cell phones to supercomputers and supported by professional-quality installers for Windows, Linux and macOS. It is probably the easiest-to-learn programming language is widespread use and a very expressive language, which means that you can usually write fewer lines of Python code than would be required for an equivalent application written in, let's say, C++ or Java. One of its great strengths in that it comes with a very standard library – this allows us to do lots of things with just one or a few lines of code. On the top, thousands of third-party libraries are also available, providing more powerful and sophisticated features than the standard library.

What is Python 2.7?

Python was originally developed in the late 1980s by Guido Van Rossum but its implementation was started in 1989 and the first official version Python 0.9.0 was released in 1991. In 1994, Python 1.0 was released with new features that included map, lambda, filter and reduce, which aligned it heavily in relation to functional programming. Later a much powerful and sophisticated Python 2.0 was released which was a complete overhaul from its predecessors and added new features like garbage collection system, list comprehensions, and the best part , it supported Unicode. Additional features and functionalities were added further in the version 2.7 and it wasn't enough to stop it from migrating to version 3.0 in 2008.

What is Python 3.6?

Python 3.0 is the most stable and sophisticated version and a rather evolutionary advance on Python 2. Although, Python 3 is much better than Python 2 in more than one ways, some older practices are no longer appropriate or necessary in Python 3, and new practices have been introduces to take advantage of the functionalities of Python 3. It is currently in its version 3.6 and is a much sophisticated language than Python 2.7 – it builds on years of experience with Python 2 and simplifies some of the unwieldy syntax that was in Python 2 by adding lots of new features to make it even more of a pleasure to use than Python 2, as well as more easier and more consistent. Python 3 is the future of the programming language since Python 2 is soon to be retired.

Difference Between Python 2.7 and 3.6

1. Print

– While Python 2.7 and Python 3.6 share some similar capabilities , they should not be seen as entirely interchangeable. One of the noticeable differences between the two is that 'print' statement is treated very differently in Python 2.6; it is a special statement in Python 2.6 rather than a function which does not require arguments inside an extra pair of parentheses to execute. However, print ( ) is a built-in function in Python 3.6, which requires arguments to be placed inside parentheses to execute. For example, to print 'Hello Sir!' in Python 2.7, you can do so with – print 'Hello Sir!', whereas in Python 3.6, the syntax is – print ('Hello Sir!').

1. Integer Division of Python 2.7 and 3.6

– Python 3 was designed to fix the flaws in Python 2, one of which is Integer Division.In Python 2.7, the return type of division of integers will always be 'int' because it sees the digits after decimal points as integers and returns the nearest whole number. For example, 5/4 returns 1 instead of 1.25 and 6/2 returns 3. However, Python 3.6 returns 'float' even if the values are integers, making the division of integers more intuitive. For example, 5/4 will return 1.25 instead of 1 and 4/2 will return 2.0.

1. Unicode Support for Python 2.7 and 3.6

– Python 2.7 has two string types: Unicode strings and non-Unicode strings. It has two global functions to coerce objects into strings: unicode( ) to coerce them into Unicode strings and str( ) to coerce them into non-Unicode strings. However, all strings are Unicode strings in Python 3.6 meaning it has only one string type, Unicode strings, so the str( ) is all you need. Unicode string literals are simply converted into string literals, which are always Unicode in Python 3.6. This saves the extra development time for programmers

1. Removal of xrange( )

– In Python 2.7, there are two built-in functions that generate a sequence of numbers and they include range( ) and xrange( ). In Python 2.7, the xrange( ) function is used to create iterable objects. However, the xrange( ) function is replaced by the range( ) function in Python 3.6, so a separate xrange( ) is not required anymore. The range( ) function is much sophisticated and powerful than the xrange( ) function, although both the functions are implemented in a similar manner.

Python 2.7 vs. Python 3.6: Comparison Chart

Summary of Python 2.7 vs. 3.6

Although, Python 3.6 an evolutionary advance on Python 2.7, some older practices are no longer appropriate or necessary in Python 3, and new practices have been introduces to take advantage of the functionalities of Python 3. Python 3 is the future of the programming language since Python 2 is soon to be retired. Python 3 was designed to overcome the flaws in Python 2 such as integer division, data types, and more. That being said, Python 3.6 is much powerful and sophisticated than Python 2.7 because it adds a lot of new features to make it even more convenient to use than Python 2.7.

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A Python program is read by a parser. Input to the parser is a stream oftokens, generated by the lexical analyzer. This chapter describes how thelexical analyzer breaks a file into tokens.

Python reads program text as Unicode code points; the encoding of a source filecan be given by an encoding declaration and defaults to UTF-8, see PEP 3120for details. If the source file cannot be decoded, a SyntaxError israised.

2.1. Line structure¶

A Python program is divided into a number of logical lines.

2.1.1. Logical lines¶

The end of a logical line is represented by the token NEWLINE. Statementscannot cross logical line boundaries except where NEWLINE is allowed by thesyntax (e.g., between statements in compound statements). A logical line isconstructed from one or more physical lines by following the explicit orimplicit line joining rules.

2.1.2. Physical lines¶

A physical line is a sequence of characters terminated by an end-of-linesequence. In source files and strings, any of the standard platform linetermination sequences can be used - the Unix form using ASCII LF (linefeed),the Windows form using the ASCII sequence CR LF (return followed by linefeed),or the old Macintosh form using the ASCII CR (return) character. All of theseforms can be used equally, regardless of platform. The end of input also servesas an implicit terminator for the final physical line.

When embedding Python, source code strings should be passed to Python APIs usingthe standard C conventions for newline characters (the n character,representing ASCII LF, is the line terminator).

2.1.4. Encoding declarations¶

If a comment in the first or second line of the Python script matches theregular expression coding[=:]s*([-w.]+), this comment is processed as anencoding declaration; the first group of this expression names the encoding ofthe source code file. The encoding declaration must appear on a line of itsown. If it is the second line, the first line must also be a comment-only line.The recommended forms of an encoding expression are

which is recognized also by GNU Emacs, and

which is recognized by Bram Moolenaar's VIM.

If no encoding declaration is found, the default encoding is UTF-8. Inaddition, if the first bytes of the file are the UTF-8 byte-order mark(b'xefxbbxbf'), the declared file encoding is UTF-8 (this is supported,among others, by Microsoft's notepad).

If an encoding is declared, the encoding name must be recognized by Python. Theencoding is used for all lexical analysis, including string literals, commentsand identifiers.

2.1.5. Explicit line joining¶

Two or more physical lines may be joined into logical lines using backslashcharacters (), as follows: when a physical line ends in a backslash that isnot part of a string literal or comment, it is joined with the following forminga single logical line, deleting the backslash and the following end-of-linecharacter. For example:

A line ending in a backslash cannot carry a comment. A backslash does notcontinue a comment. A backslash does not continue a token except for stringliterals (i.e., tokens other than string literals cannot be split acrossphysical lines using a backslash). A backslash is illegal elsewhere on a lineoutside a string literal.

2.1.6. Implicit line joining¶

Expressions in parentheses, square brackets or curly braces can be split overmore than one physical line without using backslashes. For example:

Implicitly continued lines can carry comments. The indentation of thecontinuation lines is not important. Blank continuation lines are allowed.There is no NEWLINE token between implicit continuation lines. Implicitlycontinued lines can also occur within triple-quoted strings (see below); in thatcase they cannot carry comments.

2.1.7. Blank lines¶

A logical line that contains only spaces, tabs, formfeeds and possibly acomment, is ignored (i.e., no NEWLINE token is generated). During interactiveinput of statements, handling of a blank line may differ depending on theimplementation of the read-eval-print loop. In the standard interactiveinterpreter, an entirely blank logical line (i.e. one containing not evenwhitespace or a comment) terminates a multi-line statement.

2.1.8. Indentation¶

Leading whitespace (spaces and tabs) at the beginning of a logical line is usedto compute the indentation level of the line, which in turn is used to determinethe grouping of statements.

Tabs are replaced (from left to right) by one to eight spaces such that thetotal number of characters up to and including the replacement is a multiple ofeight (this is intended to be the same rule as used by Unix). The total numberof spaces preceding the first non-blank character then determines the line'sindentation. Indentation cannot be split over multiple physical lines usingbackslashes; the whitespace up to the first backslash determines theindentation.

Indentation is rejected as inconsistent if a source file mixes tabs and spacesin a way that makes the meaning dependent on the worth of a tab in spaces; aTabError is raised in that case.

Cross-platform compatibility note: because of the nature of text editors onnon-UNIX platforms, it is unwise to use a mixture of spaces and tabs for theindentation in a single source file. It should also be noted that differentplatforms may explicitly limit the maximum indentation level.

A formfeed character may be present at the start of the line; it will be ignoredfor the indentation calculations above. Formfeed characters occurring elsewherein the leading whitespace have an undefined effect (for instance, they may resetthe space count to zero).

The indentation levels of consecutive lines are used to generate INDENT andDEDENT tokens, using a stack, as follows.

Before the first line of the file is read, a single zero is pushed on the stack;this will never be popped off again. The numbers pushed on the stack willalways be strictly increasing from bottom to top. At the beginning of eachlogical line, the line's indentation level is compared to the top of the stack.If it is equal, nothing happens. If it is larger, it is pushed on the stack, andone INDENT token is generated. If it is smaller, it must be one of thenumbers occurring on the stack; all numbers on the stack that are larger arepopped off, and for each number popped off a DEDENT token is generated. At theend of the file, a DEDENT token is generated for each number remaining on thestack that is larger than zero.

Here is an example of a correctly (though confusingly) indented piece of Pythoncode:

The following example shows various indentation errors:

(Actually, the first three errors are detected by the parser; only the lasterror is found by the lexical analyzer — the indentation of returnr doesnot match a level popped off the stack.)

2.1.9. Whitespace between tokens¶

Except at the beginning of a logical line or in string literals, the whitespacecharacters space, tab and formfeed can be used interchangeably to separatetokens. Whitespace is needed between two tokens only if their concatenationcould otherwise be interpreted as a different token (e.g., ab is one token, buta b is two tokens).

2.2. Other tokens¶

Besides NEWLINE, INDENT and DEDENT, the following categories of tokens exist:identifiers, keywords, literals, operators, and delimiters. Whitespacecharacters (other than line terminators, discussed earlier) are not tokens, butserve to delimit tokens. Where ambiguity exists, a token comprises the longestpossible string that forms a legal token, when read from left to right.

2.3. Identifiers and keywords¶

Identifiers (also referred to as names) are described by the following lexicaldefinitions.

The syntax of identifiers in Python is based on the Unicode standard annexUAX-31, with elaboration and changes as defined below; see also PEP 3131 forfurther details.

Within the ASCII range (U+0001.U+007F), the valid characters for identifiersare the same as in Python 2.x: the uppercase and lowercase letters A throughZ, the underscore _ and, except for the first character, the digits0 through 9.

Python 3.0 introduces additional characters from outside the ASCII range (seePEP 3131). For these characters, the classification uses the version of theUnicode Character Database as included in the unicodedata module.

Identifiers are unlimited in length. Case is significant.

The Unicode category codes mentioned above stand for:

• Lu - uppercase letters

• Ll - lowercase letters

• Lt - titlecase letters

• Lm - modifier letters

• Lo - other letters

• Nl - letter numbers

• Mn - nonspacing marks

• Mc - spacing combining marks

• Nd - decimal numbers

• Pc - connector punctuations

• Other_ID_Start - explicit list of characters in PropList.txt to support backwardscompatibility

• Other_ID_Continue - likewise

All identifiers are converted into the normal form NFKC while parsing; comparisonof identifiers is based on NFKC.

A non-normative HTML file listing all valid identifier characters for Unicode4.1 can be found athttps://www.unicode.org/Public/13.0.0/ucd/DerivedCoreProperties.txt

2.3.1. Keywords¶

The following identifiers are used as reserved words, or keywords of thelanguage, and cannot be used as ordinary identifiers. They must be spelledexactly as written here:

2.3.2. Reserved classes of identifiers¶

Certain classes of identifiers (besides keywords) have special meanings. Theseclasses are identified by the patterns of leading and trailing underscorecharacters:

Not imported by frommoduleimport*. The special identifier _ is usedin the interactive interpreter to store the result of the last evaluation; it isstored in the builtins module. When not in interactive mode, _has no special meaning and is not defined. See section The import statement.

Note

The name _ is often used in conjunction with internationalization;refer to the documentation for the gettext module for moreinformation on this convention.

System-defined names, informally known as 'dunder' names. These names aredefined by the interpreter and its implementation (including the standard library).Current system names are discussed in the Special method names section and elsewhere.More will likely be defined in future versions of Python. Any use of __*__ names,in any context, that does not follow explicitly documented use, is subject tobreakage without warning.

Class-private names. Names in this category, when used within the context of aclass definition, are re-written to use a mangled form to help avoid nameclashes between 'private' attributes of base and derived classes. See sectionIdentifiers (Names).

2.4. Literals¶

Literals are notations for constant values of some built-in types.

2.4.1. String and Bytes literals¶

String literals are described by the following lexical definitions:

One syntactic restriction not indicated by these productions is that whitespaceis not allowed between the stringprefix or bytesprefix and therest of the literal. The source character set is defined by the encodingdeclaration; it is UTF-8 if no encoding declaration is given in the source file;see section Encoding declarations.

In plain English: Both types of literals can be enclosed in matching single quotes(') or double quotes ('). They can also be enclosed in matching groupsof three single or double quotes (these are generally referred to astriple-quoted strings). The backslash () character is used to escapecharacters that otherwise have a special meaning, such as newline, backslashitself, or the quote character.

Bytes literals are always prefixed with 'b' or 'B'; they produce aninstance of the bytes type instead of the str Does snapchat work on computers. type. Theymay only contain ASCII characters; bytes with a numeric value of 128 or greatermust be expressed with escapes.

Both string and bytes literals may optionally be prefixed with a letter 'r'or 'R'; such strings are called raw strings and treat backslashes asliteral characters. As a result, in string literals, 'U' and 'u'escapes in raw strings are not treated specially. Given that Python 2.x's rawunicode literals behave differently than Python 3.x's the 'ur' syntaxis not supported.

New in version 3.3: The 'rb' prefix of raw bytes literals has been added as a synonymof 'br'.

New in version 3.3: Support for the unicode legacy literal (u'value') was reintroducedto simplify the maintenance of dual Python 2.x and 3.x codebases.See PEP 414 for more information.

A string literal with 'f' or 'F' in its prefix is aformatted string literal; see Formatted string literals. The 'f' may becombined with 'r', but not with 'b' or 'u', therefore rawformatted strings are possible, but formatted bytes literals are not.

In triple-quoted literals, unescaped newlines and quotes are allowed (and areretained), except that three unescaped quotes in a row terminate the literal. (A'quote' is the character used to open the literal, i.e. either ' or '.)

Unless an 'r' or 'R' prefix is present, escape sequences in string andbytes literals are interpreted according to rules similar to those used byStandard C. The recognized escape sequences are:

Escape sequences only recognized in string literals are:

Notes:

1. As in Standard C, up to three octal digits are accepted.

2. Unlike in Standard C, exactly two hex digits are required.

3. In a bytes literal, hexadecimal and octal escapes denote the byte with thegiven value. In a string literal, these escapes denote a Unicode characterwith the given value.

4. Changed in version 3.3: Support for name aliases 1 has been added.

5. Exactly four hex digits are required.

6. Any Unicode character can be encoded this way. Exactly eight hex digitsare required.

Unlike Standard C, all unrecognized escape sequences are left in the stringunchanged, i.e., the backslash is left in the result. (This behavior isuseful when debugging: if an escape sequence is mistyped, the resulting outputis more easily recognized as broken.) It is also important to note that theescape sequences only recognized in string literals fall into the category ofunrecognized escapes for bytes literals.

Changed in version 3.6: Unrecognized escape sequences produce a DeprecationWarning. Ina future Python version they will be a SyntaxWarning andeventually a SyntaxError.

Even in a raw literal, quotes can be escaped with a backslash, but thebackslash remains in the result; for example, r'' is a valid stringliteral consisting of two characters: a backslash and a double quote; r'is not a valid string literal (even a raw string cannot end in an odd number ofbackslashes). Specifically, a raw literal cannot end in a single backslash(since the backslash would escape the following quote character). Note alsothat a single backslash followed by a newline is interpreted as those twocharacters as part of the literal, not as a line continuation.

2.4.2. String literal concatenation¶

Multiple adjacent string or bytes literals (delimited by whitespace), possiblyusing different quoting conventions, are allowed, and their meaning is the sameas their concatenation. Thus, 'hello''world' is equivalent to'helloworld'. This feature can be used to reduce the number of backslashesneeded, to split long strings conveniently across long lines, or even to addcomments to parts of strings, for example:

Note that this feature is defined at the syntactical level, but implemented atcompile time. The ‘+' operator must be used to concatenate string expressionsat run time. Also note that literal concatenation can use different quotingstyles for each component (even mixing raw strings and triple quoted strings),and formatted string literals may be concatenated with plain string literals.

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2.4.3. Formatted string literals¶

A formatted string literal or f-string is a string literalthat is prefixed with 'f' or 'F'. These strings may containreplacement fields, which are expressions delimited by curly braces {}.While other string literals always have a constant value, formatted stringsare really expressions evaluated at run time.

Escape sequences are decoded like in ordinary string literals (except whena literal is also marked as a raw string). After decoding, the grammarfor the contents of the string is:

The parts of the string outside curly braces are treated literally,except that any doubled curly braces '{{' or '}}' are replacedwith the corresponding single curly brace. A single opening curlybracket '{' marks a replacement field, which starts with aPython expression. To display both the expression text and its value afterevaluation, (useful in debugging), an equal sign '=' may be added after theexpression. A conversion field, introduced by an exclamation point '!' mayfollow. A format specifier may also be appended, introduced by a colon ':'.A replacement field ends with a closing curly bracket '}'.

Expressions in formatted string literals are treated like regularPython expressions surrounded by parentheses, with a few exceptions.An empty expression is not allowed, and both lambda andassignment expressions := must be surrounded by explicit parentheses.Replacement expressions can contain line breaks (e.g. in triple-quotedstrings), but they cannot contain comments. Each expression is evaluatedin the context where the formatted string literal appears, in order fromleft to right.

Changed in version 3.7: Prior to Python 3.7, an await expression and comprehensionscontaining an asyncfor clause were illegal in the expressionsin formatted string literals due to a problem with the implementation.

When the equal sign '=' is provided, the output will have the expressiontext, the '=' and the evaluated value. Spaces after the opening brace'{', within the expression and after the '=' are all retained in theoutput. By default, the '=' causes the repr() of the expression to beprovided, unless there is a format specified. When a format is specified itdefaults to the str() of the expression unless a conversion '!r' isdeclared.

If a conversion is specified, the result of evaluating the expressionis converted before formatting. Conversion '!s' calls str() onthe result, '!r' calls repr(), and '!a' calls ascii().

The result is then formatted using the format() protocol. Theformat specifier is passed to the __format__() method of theexpression or conversion result. An empty string is passed when theformat specifier is omitted. The formatted result is then included inthe final value of the whole string.

Top-level format specifiers may include nested replacement fields. These nestedfields may include their own conversion fields and format specifiers, but may not include more deeply-nested replacement fields. Theformat specifier mini-language is the same as that used bythe str.format() method.

Formatted string literals may be concatenated, but replacement fieldscannot be split across literals.

Some examples of formatted string literals:

A consequence of sharing the same syntax as regular string literals isthat characters in the replacement fields must not conflict with thequoting used in the outer formatted string literal:

Backslashes are not allowed in format expressions and will raisean error:

To include a value in which a backslash escape is required, createa temporary variable.

Formatted string literals cannot be used as docstrings, even if they do notinclude expressions.

See also PEP 498 for the proposal that added formatted string literals,and str.format(), which uses a related format string mechanism.

2.4.4. Numeric literals¶

There are three types of numeric literals: integers, floating point numbers, andimaginary numbers. There are no complex literals (complex numbers can be formedby adding a real number and an imaginary number).

Note that numeric literals do not include a sign; a phrase like -1 isactually an expression composed of the unary operator ‘-‘ and the literal1.

2.4.5. Integer literals¶

Integer literals are described by the following lexical definitions:

There is no limit for the length of integer literals apart from what can bestored in available memory.

Underscores are ignored for determining the numeric value of the literal. Theycan be used to group digits for enhanced readability. One underscore can occurbetween digits, and after base specifiers like 0x.

Note that leading zeros in a non-zero decimal number are not allowed. This isfor disambiguation with C-style octal literals, which Python used before version3.0.

Some examples of integer literals:

Changed in version 3.6: Underscores are now allowed for grouping purposes in literals.

2.4.6. Floating point literals¶

Floating point literals are described by the following lexical definitions:

Note that the integer and exponent parts are always interpreted using radix 10.For example, 077e010 is legal, and denotes the same number as 77e10. Theallowed range of floating point literals is implementation-dependent. As ininteger literals, underscores are supported for digit grouping.

Some examples of floating point literals:

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Changed in version 3.6: Underscores are now allowed for grouping purposes in literals.

2.4.7. Imaginary literals¶

Imaginary literals are described by the following lexical definitions:

An imaginary literal yields a complex number with a real part of 0.0. Complexnumbers are represented as a pair of floating point numbers and have the samerestrictions on their range. To create a complex number with a nonzero realpart, add a floating point number to it, e.g., (3+4j). Some examples ofimaginary literals:

2.5. Operators¶

The following tokens are operators:

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2.6. Delimiters¶

The following tokens serve as delimiters in the grammar:

The period can also occur in floating-point and imaginary literals. A sequenceof three periods has a special meaning as an ellipsis literal. The second halfof the list, the augmented assignment operators, serve lexically as delimiters,but also perform an operation.

The following printing ASCII characters have special meaning as part of othertokens or are otherwise significant to the lexical analyzer:

The following printing ASCII characters are not used in Python. Theiroccurrence outside string literals and comments is an unconditional error:

Footnotes

Python 3 6 8

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